Lincoln vs. Davis Essay

Davis vs. Lincoln The management styles of Jefferson Davis and Abraham Lincoln greatly influenced the outcome of the Civil War. Lincoln’s primary goal was to preserve the union, and in order to do this, he made certain decisions that were un-constitutional. These decisions ultimately strengthened his role as the president as the war progressed. He even stated in his address that if necessary, he would do whatever it takes to win. Jefferson, in contrast, demonstrated a very loose ruling over the people of the confederacy.He was honest and followed the law without breaking rules. He allowed the war to be controlled by the military leaders who were participants in the battle, and he gave his generals trust and authority. The result of Daviis’s leadership style was an executive branch weaker than Lincoln’s. It is debatable that because of Lincoln’s reckless, un-lawful decisions, the Union was able to win the war against the South. According to document A, Linc oln had a â€Å"blatant disregard for the Constitution. Throughout the war, Abraham Lincoln increased the Army, spent money without approval and made un-justified arrests. During his presidency he also held opposing political enemies in jail without trial so he could potentially gain more votes. â€Å"As he delivered the Gettysburg Address, his troops guarded the polls at a state election in Delaware, insuring a Republican Victory† (Document A). It is interesting to think how Lincoln is typically portrayed as â€Å"Honest Abe† and â€Å"The Great Emancipator† since he was none of these things.Jefferson Davis was the honest, law abiding president that most people believe Lincoln to be. He was a very intelligent, great public speaker known for integrity. Unlike Lincoln, Davis became slightly less popular because he refused to remove un-successful officers. His support of state sovereignty was based on deep conviction. (Document A) Davis was a very ineffective mic romanager. While the battles raged on, Davis trusted his Generals to lead the war and make the decisions. Davis on the other hand had a calm, relaxed leadership style and welcomed the input of others.He was known to change strategies and even allowed the generals to change strategies that he had strongly opposed. Davis was able to forgive his opponents and listen to their concerns. He would consider the opinions of others and would revise his actions according to information from generals, his cabinet, or the people. One of the factors contributing to the outcome of the war due to leadership styles was that Lincoln micromanaged his generals and acted as the authority, while Davis allowed the generals freedom with decisions and battle strategies.Lincoln would go to any lengths to pursue his goals of preserving the Union and â€Å"ordered thousands of arrest, kept political enemies in prison without bringing charges against them, refused these hapless men right to trial by their peer s, and ignored orders from the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court to release them†. (Document A) Lincoln was goal oriented and focused on his plan and was not receptive to input from authorities or the people. Lincoln’s act of silencing his opponents led to fear in the public and ultimately to Lincoln getting his way.Because of Lincoln’s strong dedication to win the war, his strategy was much more powerful than Davis’s. Davis ran on a trial and error style of fighting, while Lincoln would not accept failure. Because of his persistence and record of winning battles, Lincoln had a strategic advantage over the Confederacy. Perhaps if Davis had a taken more responsibility and aggressiveness toward the Union, the outcome would have been different. However, because of the completely different leadership styles, the Union achieved victory over the Confederate army.

The Application of Vygotsky’s Theory to the Design

2. Why does learning require disequilibrium according to Piaget? Provide an example of how teachers can create discrepant events. 3. What is the Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky’s thought? Do you think it is a good model of learning? Why or why not? The Application of Vgotsky’s Social Development Theory to the Designing of a School Curriculum Christina Nardone: 102150672 Educational Psychology 02-46-324-01 Assignment A: Conceptual Comment University of Windsor Instructor: Anoop Gupta October 1st, 2012Lev Vgotsky’s theories have become central to understanding cognitive development and have influenced many research initiatives in the past couple years. Social interaction and culture are thought to be the back bone of learning in his theory of social development, where he argues that social learning tends to occur before development (McLeod, 2007). This theory is one of the foundations for Constructivism, which can be defined as an active learning process, in which new knowledge is built on previous knowledge (Hoover, 1996).An important component of social development theory is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It has been defined as â€Å"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving, and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers† (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 90). According to Vygotsky, learning occurs in this zone.Scaffolding is a technique related to the ZDP in that the adult or peer adjusts their level of help to the learner depending on their performance in the task. (Young, 1993). These components of social development theory would be useful in designing an educational curriculum. Schools should retire the instructional approach to teaching and adopt a more interactive approach so that students can be actively involved in their learning. Incorporating scaffolding techniques to th eir lectures would be beneficial as well as adding some collaborative learning tasks with their peers.The focus of learning should be on how well students have developed their problem solving skills, not just how much information they have learned. Also, testing and assessment should take into account the zone of proximal development; two children could have the same actual levels of development but different potential levels of development, which one child could be more capable than another child in completing many more complicated tasks. Works Cited Hoover, W. A. (1996, August 3rd). The Practice Implications of Constructivism.Retrieved September 30th, 2012, from SEDL: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory: http://www. sedl. org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice. html McLeod, S. (2007). Lev Vgotsky. Retrieved september 30th, 2012, from Simply Psychology: http://www. simplypsychology. org Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Ca mbridge: Harvard University Press. Young, M. (1993). Instructional design for situated learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41 (1).

Google Stock Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Google Stock - Term Paper Example The Google search engine uses PageRank, Algortihms, Link Measurement, and Profiling as part of its objective to deliver the most accurate and most relevant results to the searcher. Google also offers a very successful email product called Gmail. Gmail is unique in that it allows the email account holder much more free space (7GB) than the average free email client. In my experience, Gmail is an exceptional email client as it provides many more services than the standard email. Google Maps is another successful application in that it is not just an average web mapping system. This advanced mapping system offers satellite imagery of most urban cities in the US and around the world. It also can be integrated with many mobile phones, which allows for a GPS mapping system directly on the phone. These features allow its users to find information and easily share it to anyone in the world. With the amount of traffic Google receives on a daily basis, Google has to have some kind of strategy to generate its revenue. One of Google's main sources of revenue is advertising. In 2007, advertising accounted for 99% of Google's revenues. Google implements two main advertising products which are AdSense and AdWords. AdWords is Google's flagship advertising product and main source of revenue ($16.4 billion in 2007). AdWords offers pay-per-click advertising, and site-targeted advertising for both text and banner ads. The AdWords program includes local, national, and international distribution. Section 3: The macroeconomics Google competes to attract and retain relationships with users, advertisers and Google Network members and other content providers in different strategies. Google competes to attract and retain users of its search and communication products and services. Most of the products and services that Google offer to users are free, so they do not compete on price. Instead, they compete in this area on the basis of the relevance and usefulness of their search results and the features, availability and ease of use of their products and services. Google has been an outstanding company in the marketplace ever since its inception and it continues to be and deliver exceptional service to the global market. The move into public ownership brought about more benefits to its employees as well as present and future shareholders. The founders of Google felt that the standard structure of public ownership might jeopardize the independence and focused objectivity that has been apart of Google's past succe ss. Google's leadership team wanted to preserve this aspect of the organization, so they implemented a corporate structure that is designed to protect Google's ability to introduce and retain its most distinctive characteristics. In 2007 and 2008, cash from Google's financing activities totaled $403.1 million and $87.6 million (Google Inc. 2009). Cash from financing activities is cash flow that takes place between organizations and stockholders and includes loans from bondholders and other creditors (Financial Education 2007). According to Google's numbers, the company is under no risk since the company does not rely solely on outside sources to generate its cash flow. Cash flow from Google's investing activities negatively increased in 2008 as it

Hospitality as a performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Hospitality as a performance - Essay Example For, in the hospitality industry, there are no takes or retakes; once performed, there in no turning back. This makes the job of these personnel extremely difficult and mentally tough. We see that one often needs to present themselves in different ways in varying situations. The front office men and women are well-dressed and offer a glowing countenance every time a customer walks up to them, whether they like or not. A bartender may not be having the best of days, yet he/she will have to offer the kindest smile in the world, every time a stranger asks for a drink. A waiter or waitress may be having the worst day in their life, still they offer a towel or remark politely, " Its OK Sir, I'll have it cleaned up immediately," when a customer throws up or spills a drink over the table. Welcome then to the hospitality industry, where all sorts of roles are played out day-in, day-out to keep their customers happy. Most often, these roles come with a script, a fixed message. Considering the magnitude of personal involvement, the pressure to perform remains utmost important in organisations such as the hospitality and other service industries. Organisational Behaviour in Hotels and Restaurants are monitored to such an extent that unless the personnel perform to industry standards, they are most likely to lose business and name. Personal relations remain high on their agenda. A study of the industry suggests that performance is based on strong HR policies. One could study the following to understand the impact of personal supervision to understand the following: Why is it a work in some organisations pleasurable, and torturous in others Why is it difficult to motivate employees to work hard How can one person persuade a group to work as a team Which is the best way of designing an organisational structure Can one persuade his/her boss to listen to their ideas (Guerrier, 2004). Motivation remains the biggest factor in making people perform. One can never get away from the fact that, man has and will continue to be fascinated by rewards and appreciation. Many hotels have come forward to openly recognize the best performer in the various departments of their hotel to encourage others to perform. Hotel personnel are stage performers, and to get the best out of them, there is nothing like showing the bait. 'Role playing' is what is enacted by these personnel right through their career in the hotel. The same may not be the case in real life, as their life at home or with friends. Similarly, Gorden Rumsay runs a program called, 'hell kitchen.' For outsiders, the feeling may be one of terror or bullish. He wants to be a perfectionist, and goes about shouting and screaming at his staff, with the occasional use of four-letter words to get his staff to perform. This may be his way to get the best from his staff. However, his staff and others around him may think of h im to be arrogant and

Nature Tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Nature Tourism - Essay Example Motivation relates to the choice of destination and activities, which are expected to relate to trip satisfaction and subsequent travel related intentions. The theories of motivation are a way of understanding the tourist expectations formation, that is, the tourist behaviour. Do they accurately assess and analyse tourist behaviour If so, to what extent Some of the functions of attitude are knowledge, ego, defence, value expression, utility and social adaptation; these functions act as mediators between drives or motives and values or situations. The theory of tourism motivation explains the behaviour pattern and assists in the satisfaction of it's underlying cognitive and emotional motives. The two systems of emotions and cognition differ in the degree of control a person has over their generation and manipulation. The term cognition refers to the mental representations such as knowledge or beliefs. Emotions encompass drives, feelings and instincts. The two jointly contribute to tourism motivation process. Motive is a distinct type of learned or conceived action in the form of behaviour. Motivation contains results of a situation-person interaction. One and the same motive can generate situational different behaviour; while different motives can generate very similar behaviour. A person experiences a press or a pull, which usually appears in the guise of a threat of harm or promise of benefit. Both need and press, combine to form an equivalent group of behavioural situations. (Heckhausen, 1989.) When motives transform to motivation, the process of choosing specific destination and activities begin. "Motivation is based on feelings of competence and self determination." (Deci and Ryan, 1985.) Tourist motivation is a set of needs, which predispose a person to participate in a tourist activity. The important antecedents of individual motivation are cultural background, values, market communication, experience, and consumer self-perception. 3. Motivation of Nature Tourism People who live in cities are motivated to travel as tourists to areas of wilderness because they need to escape from an artificial monotonous environment. Gray's Travel Motivation Theory gives us two motives; first is the desire to go from a known place to an unknown place and the second is to go to a place which can provide the traveler with special facilities, that do not exist in the place of residence. This theory does not completely cover the aspects of nature tourism. It will be worthwhile to have a look at the Career Ladder Theory, which emphasizes that people have a range of motives for seeking out holiday experiences. With different levels, it allows for many motives. It is dynamic and covers the seven requirements, which are considered to be good to assess the theory of tourist motivation. These seven requirements are, it functions as a true theory; it appeals to different users; it is easy to

Apple's Entry into the Mobile Phone Market Essay

Apple's Entry into the Mobile Phone Market - Essay Example The Apple phone was launched on the 29th of June, 2007 by Apple Inc and a higher version of the same model made its way into the hearts and minds of the consumers during July, 2008 amid widespread media coverage the world over. In 2007, it sold between 500,000 and 1 million phones within two days of its launch. (Srinivas, 2008) In terms of the model that has been used for the Apple phone for the development of a relevant marketing plan and strategy, we will study the International Market Entry Mode Strategy that this company has used. This strategy is ideal for those companies that wish to diversify geographically. (Walter et al, 1988) This strategy along with others that have to do with market segmentation and brand positioning for maximum customer satisfaction will be used in order to evolve a strategy that is best suited for the purpose of an entry level product in a market as diverse as that of the global market. (Srinivas, 2008) The first element when entering a new market is the risk factor. For the Apple phone there has been a strategic management of risk through a change of location as well as the launch of personalised and online services. There, is a need to now focus on changing passive international sales into hardcore business. It is important to capitalise on the opportunities by undertaking risks so as to achieve organisational growth. Therefore, once the entry level mode is applied to this situation, there will be a concerted effort towards arriving at decisions that have to do with control, risk and commitment as demonstrated in the diagram below: To deal with the risk factor at an entry level, this diagram shows that the commitment level was set high so as to start by catering to consumer satisfaction. With effective segmentation, it will be easy to find out the areas of investment so as to find an appropriate positioning on the scale where exports start. (Walter et al, 1988) Therefore, a good entry level

Summary and Critical Analysis of Multi-objective Decision Making Term Paper

Summary and Critical Analysis of Multi-objective Decision Making - Term Paper Example This term paper discusses the subject of multi-objective decision making problems, that require a set of criteria prior to implementation. First, it is clear that objective functions must be normalized. That is, objective functions must have the same physical meaning to all the stakeholders involved, which likewise means that units and scales used in the measurement of these function must be consistent. Next, the appropriate principle of optimality must be chosen. The principle of optimality sets the properties of the optimal solution and answers in such a ways that the optimal solution bests all other possible solutions. Third, the researcher states that the priorities of objective functions have also to be considered. It is imortant to understand that different objective functions have different importance and thus, higher priority must be given to more important objective functions. Based on these considerations, this term paper provides a critical analysis of a multi-objective de cision making model, which covers economics and managerial applications of a company. A summary of the model were presented by the researcher of the paper, and its strengths and weaknesses were also highlighted. In conclusion, the researcher of this term paper analyzed the final portion of the study. This term paper also presents an outline of a possible research project, that will be concducted and that will involve both multi-objective decision making process and analysis as well as multi-objective decision making model to view.

Capstone Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Capstone Project - Research Paper Example As far as its footwear market is concerned, the company consists of 33% of global market share. Its distribution channels include both traditional and nontraditional channels in more than 100 countries in the whole world (Armstrong & Kotler, 2009). Â   The mission of Nike stated in their mission statement is to surpass all other similar and competition companies in the industry. Nike plans to achieve this by maintaining its position in market through providing quality footwear, equipment and apparels for consumers of all ages and lifestyles and also for different institutions. Through proper utilization of retail outlets, company’s websites as well as mail order company pledges to make its products available globally. As far as execution of this mission is concerned the company and its management believes that for the effective operations of the company, the success lies in collective responsibilities of all employees, team mates, customers, communities and all the stakeholde rs for the company. (Kotler & Keller, 2009). Nike’s vision is to remain a global leader in the industry and for this the company intends to continue producing high quality products. This challenges the company to continue to constantly meet through innovation and creativity, the ever changing trends and needs of their customers and the company is dedicated to achieve these in both short and long term. (Kotler & Keller, 2009). The analysis of Nike’s strategic plan along with its performance over the years shows that the company has been able to perform with regard to its vision and financial statements, which is a part of its strategic plan. The company, since the year 2000, was able to achieve a net income of more than $550 million at the end of every financial year which helps the company to achieve its long-term objective of improvement on equity, and a higher EPS. Nike focuses on improving on stockholders returns on equity to achieve a percentage of 20 and this can be estimated to roughly 6% from its previous trading periods. Nike has been previously able to recover market price of its stock from a low of $26.5, per share to $50 and above, per share. Nike works on strategies through which it can increase its earnings per share to an estimated $2.70, a figure that can be one of the highest (Armstrong & Kotler, 2009). Under the company analysis, the strengths and weaknesses of Nike will be reviewed. One of the major strengths’ of Nike includes its board of director consisting of both independent directors and management directors. They play a vital role in the decision making of the company especially the decisions related to strategy formulation of the company. These diversified directors help the company by not only providing an outside experience but also a frame of reference improving an overall thinking of the board, hence their decisions include rich experience and eliminates any disagreements and contradictions. Another major stren gth is the strong internal environment of the company as Nike conducts an internal analysis, which helps making decisions (Nike, 2012). The weaknesses that the company has experienced so far are related to the company’s inability to cope up with the issues regarding to labor. There also have been complains regarding the company’s working conditions. This was even highlighted as a major issue in the global media and led Nike to a bad reputation, turning into a major crisis

Development and new trend of holography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Development and new trend of holography - Essay Example It can refer to either the encoded objects or the resulting image. A holographic image can be viewed shinning a laser via a hologram and projecting the reflection onto a display or by looking into a lit-up holographic print. A hologram appears to be an indefinable pattern of whorls and stripes, but, once shone on by a coherent light such as by a laser beam, it configures the light into a three-dimensional image of the primary object (Hannes & Michael, 2008). Holography is founded on the principle of interference, whereby, the inference pattern between two or more rays of a coherent light, that is a laser light, is captured by a hologram. Here, a single ray is illuminated directly on the recording mean and operate as a reference to the light dispersed from the lit-up scene. Hence, the hologram captures a beam as it interests the entire part of film, which explains its description as a window with memory. A holographic film physical medium is quite photosensitive that includes a fine grains structure. Some of the most used materials include dichromate gelatins, photopolymers and silver-halide emulsions and all have varying characteristics and entail dissimilar processing (Hannes & Michael, 2008). A hologram is the documented interference pattern of constructive, intensity peaks, and destructive, elimination, of the covered-up light wave fronts known as the electromagnetic field. With a coherent light source and a definite geometry or a short pulse period, the interference pattern is at a stands till and, hence, can be recorded into the hologram’s photosensitive suspension. Afterwards, the hologram is chemically developed to a point where the suspension acquires a modulated density, which freezes the inference pattern into fringes. When observing the modulated structure under a microscope, it appears different in comparison to the image encoded within. The density fringes are a scattered pattern of wave front

Financial Strategy Statistics Project Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Financial Strategy - Statistics Project Example Last year was a very challenging period for the company as its total operating profit fell from ' 500 million (in 2004) to ' 302 million in 2005 [1]. The company has set as its mission [1] the delivery 'of great service and results through its people and the achievement of leadership in chosen foodservice markets'. The basis for the achievement of the above target is the commitment towards the employees, the shareholders and the customers (Parnell, 2003). Moreover, the firm recognizes the need for high levels of customer satisfaction which it aims to achieve through the extension of its activities and the development of its relationship with the client. Towards, this direction the use of innovative strategic plans is been considered as a useful tool towards the increase of the company's performance on a long-term basis (Hodgetts et al., 2003). Historically [4] 'strategic decision analysis focused on the effects on individual firms; decisions were based solely on firm optimization criteria, such as return on investment and net present value. Increasingly, firms are recognizing that their internal strategic choices affect their suppliers and customers; however, traditional firm profit-maximizing criteria (e.g., return on investment and net present value) often reject new and emerging technologies' (Shank and Govindarajan, 1993) The firm's strategy for the future has to be based on the effort to retain its place in its industry while trying to secure its level of development throughout the years (Winston, 2002). On the other hand, the chosen plan has to be in accordance not only with the market's current trends but also with the company's financial strength and its ability to respond effectively in every issue appeared in the daily commercial transactions of the specific industry sector. The influence of particular elements has to be taken into account during the design of the corporate strategy for the future (Pritsker, 1997). In order to estimate the effects of the firm's strategy in the future we could use the strategic cost management framework as stated by Shank and Govindarajan which [2] 'demonstrate the strategic power of value chain analysis, i.e., linking external value creating activities all the way from basic raw materials, to component suppliers, and through to the ultimate end-use product delivered to the consumers'. Moreover, the specific framework helps to examine 'how cost management and cost control must be differentiated depending on the strategic positioning chose by the firm, be it cost leadership or product differentiation' [2]. Relative Market position Compass Group is - as always stated - a leading company in its area of operations. Moreover, the company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a member of FTSE100 [1]. In addition, as always stated above, the firm currently operates in over 90 countries around the world, an achievement that supports its recognition as the leading company in the specific industry. On the other hand, the company has achieved to extend its activities through the establishment of a series of brands which currently dominate

Generation Gap Paper Essay Example for Free

Generation Gap Paper Essay Refer to the General requirements for all papers found in your syllabus. Submit a 2-3 page short essay discussing Generation Gaps. How is your generation different from your grandparents? What personal changes do you see? Name cohort changes. Do you agree with age grading? (Pg 83) How do they apply to you and to your career choices? Can you see area of your current job, or career goal; where age grading might occur? (a tip to doing well on papers: answer all the questions systematically; one by one. If you dont answer all the parts to the papers, you wont get full credit!!! ) Dont forget your 2 outside sources. You must submit this paper in the writing assignments icon on the home page. Trying to find differences from my generation to my grandparents generation is going to be hard for me. My grandfather on my dads side died when I was 12, my grandmother on my dads side died about 5 years ago but really, I wasnt very close with her at all. My grandparents on my moms side I dont remember at all. If I had to start somewhere in differences between my generation and my grandparents generation my views between what I knew from both sides of my families would differ greatly. Lets start with my dads side. My grandfather was a hard working, self employed Real Estate agent. Im not sure at what age he got into the Real Estate business but he was young. He was originally married to my grandmothers sister. When she died she made my grandfather promise to take care of her sister. He married my grandmother and not only took care of the kids he had with his 1st wife, but also the 14 kids he had with his 2nd wife (my grandmother). He took his responsibilities very seriously. Hard working, he kept his grievances to himself, any problems were taken care of or dealt with. He didnt complain about his hard life. He just did what he had to do and took care of his family. You didnt complain about your life. I remember my aunt telling me once, You complained to grandpa and you got knocked on your butt. He always told us to be happy with what we have and if we werent stop bitching and get to changing it. Through my dads family I saw how my grandparents were. Hard working, loyalty to your family, taking care of your responsibilities, but I also saw the dark side of those times. Keeping feelings withheld, the hard working never complain mentality has done its number on my dad and our family. My dad treated my sisters and I the same. We disrespect our parents, we got our butts whooped. We obeyed out of fear not respect. We saw my dad work 16 hour days on a farm, come home and be completely miserable. We saw our mother not for the loving mother or housewife she was, but the miserable, lonely woman she was made into. Although I was instilled with the same hard working values, loyalty and determination that my grandfather instilled into my dad, aunts and uncles, I also see the damage that my grandpas generation has done. Instead of hardworking loving families, I see tired, resentful, angry people. I too have a desire to work hard. But I also had hidden anger issues, depression and a controlling nature. Between these generations I see more of an acceptance to want to change the way we do things. Therapy, work programs, counseling, a better school environment for children. My dad and mom did not graduate from high school, nor did my grandparents. Yet they still had jobs, albeit not the best ones, but they worked. Im not so quick to spank my kids. I want to teach them respect through love and kindness. I want to make sure they know their voices are heard and that they have choices. I want my kids to know that their choices will affect them and that there is a cause and effect for what they do. I want to make my children proud when I get into the profession that I have worked hard to get into. I also want to teach my kids the values that were taught to my parents, that were taught to their parents and probably taught to their parents.

The Pressing Problem In The Prison System Criminology Essay

The Pressing Problem In The Prison System Criminology Essay There are three custodial establishments for young people, they are Young offender institutions, Secure training centres and Secure childrens homes. The Standing Committee for Youth Justice (2010) reported that during the period of 1989 to 2009, the child custody population in England and Wales increased by 795%. There is no obvious evidence showing that the youth crime become more serious recently, but more young people was sent to prisons. These large amounts of young prisoners have already brought a big pressure to the prison system, and it has become an alarming issue in England and Wales. The prison lives are much more badly than we imagined. They are neglected from the society, some of you may say they are put in the prison because they commit crime, it is fair enough. Incarceration of offenders may have deterrence effect as they will not further commit crime in the future, but the truth is the reoffending rate still stays high. For this, I always doubt Do we need to incarcerate all under-age offenders? and Do prisons work for all offenders?. Prison may cause more personal and social problems that we never expect. Also, children who sentenced to prisons have their own problems or difficulties before they getting sent to prison, it may include poor family backgrounds or drugs abuse, etc. These make the prison system more difficult to handle these children, and thus causing the problem of resources and management. Many concerning parties are doing different reforms as they want to reduce the number. Prison Reform Trust is one of the charities who promote alternatives to custody. It has launched a new campaign Out of Trouble especially helps those children and young people who are imprisoned in the UK. Also, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 36(d) stated that custody be used as a last resort. However, Prison Reform Trust criticized the juvenile court doesnt follow it strictly. Everyone understands that the statuses of children and adult are different, it is assumed that child should have more chance than adult. Children are important capital to our future society, so the prison system has greater responsibilities to help those youth offenders a better future. Under this perspective, people always argue about the purpose of imprisoning a child should be different from the adult one too. Society always place greater hope on these groups of vulnerable children. No matter the society, professionals or the government, they will put greater emphasis on rehabilitation rather than punishment, but the problem is how to make a balance between punishment and rehabilitation? The first thing to concern about is resources, thats the money-cost. Many news reports complained that youth custody spent too much but with an unpleasant outcome in return. Every year many millions of pounds are wasted for locking up children for committing both violent and non-violent offences, it is extremely costly but fails to reduce the amount of crime. According to the report Punishing costs: How locking up children is making Britain less safe(2010), Aleksi Knuutila stated that holding a child in prison costs about  £100,000 a year in England and Wales. Prison Trust Reform always argues that some very minor offences will result in custodial sentences, and they state that non-violent crime offenders should not be sentenced to prison as it is a waste of resources. However, the Independent Commission on Youth Crime and Antisocial Behavior (2010) showed a disappointing result of reconviction rate, three quarters of all young people leaving custody re-offend within a year which means almost three out of four young offenders reoffend within a year after they release. We have already paid many millions for these youths, but we just did very little to change their behavior and protect the society. Except the money cost, we can see that the present system has limit ability to help these vulnerable child back to the right tracks. At first, people believe harsher punishment can help to deter them from doing further criminal behavior. But the truth is that the lives in prison make youngsters get closer to crime, or even breeding them into professional criminals. This is one of the struggle points for the prison system to manage and allocate those youngsters in the right places. The prison system also needs to try their best to ensure that children in prison still have their proper lives, which include giving them educational support and mentally support. As children are valuable capitals to our future society, although they did something wrong, they still have the chance to learn. Education is important to youngsters at any places, this can help youngsters to build up different kinds of skills and abilities, thus integrate back to normal life easier when they release. Most of the public support that youth institutions should give education and training to the children in prisons, this places great pressure on the prison system yet they have already put a lot of resources in providing children different education and training inside the prisons. Moreover, there is still statistics showed that the prison system is not doing enough for the children. According to the report Training planning for children and young people (2010), it stated that prisons are failing to adequately prepare young people for release. One of the problems is that there is lack of accredited offending behavior programmes for the young prisoners. Even those young prisoners set up some targets for their training plans, they may not find suitable programme to achieve them through the imprisonment period. Also, it is reported that many children release from prisons till have difficulties in their learning. This showed that the prison system doesnt spend well, and they cannot learn what they should learn in the prisons. Special attention should also be put on childs psychological needs. Inside the prison, juvenile will be allocated into different cells. It is not easy to adapt the prison lives, and it may cause them different psychological problems, such as depression. The Standing committee for youth justice report (2010) stated that Boys in custody are 18 times more likely to suicide than children in the community. We can see that it is a serious problem inside the prisons. However, it is not possible for all prison officers to have specific training to handle these problems. If the problem is ignored for a certain period of time, it may cause them suffer from some more serious mental problems. Handling the psychological needs of offenders has become one of the responsibilities of the prison system, but resources are limited for them. Again, it places greater pressure on prisons work. Evidences of reconviction rate have also showed that the present prison system is failing to restore and rehabilitate children in their prison lives. The prison system should ensure the children learn from their mistakes and the moral values through their sentences. It is important for youngsters to understand what is right and wrong, and why they are punished, it can reduce the possibilities of reoffending. However, it may bring some negative effects to the child and society, and even cannot facilitate them in reintegration and rehabilitation. Organizations of protecting children always advocate the use of community sentences, for this, children can learn from community and learn in community. Community support is important to youth offenders, if they build up good relationship with the community, they can be integrate back into the community more easily. However, the prison system does not do much in this area and still has rooms for improvement. As mentioned above, youth prison is required to do differently. Not only punishing them for their wrongdoings, but to fix their brain. It is important to do more about rehabilitation, reformation and reintegration. Children are vulnerable and relatively inexperienced with the world, they are easily affected by the external factors. If child only arrange to do some routine works in prison, it is impossible for us to change their behavior. The system need to develop a different approach for them as it has greater responsibilities to restore and reform them. However, it is not a simple task. Setting up and working with a system which is different from the adult system, it has already made child in custody under 18 the most pressing issue in the prison system. Prison officers have many challenging works like providing children proper educational support in prison, taking care of child psychological needs, working with communities, doing work of rehabilitation, etc. All these work has given the prison system many challenges and making the child in custody under 18 becomes the most pressing issue in the prison system. Words : 1541 References Standing Committee for Youth Justice (2010), Raising the custody threshold. Available from:, The Howard League for Penal Reform Web site: http://www.scyj.org.uk/files/Raising_the_custody_threshold_SummaryAug10_FINAL.pdf [Accessed: November 2, 2010] Youth Justice Board (2010), Youth justice system : Custody figures . Available from:, Youth Justice Board Web site: http://www.yjb.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/643A66F6-0DFC-4621-90C0-8EA27AD9FA99/0/SecureMonthlyReportAugust2010.xls [Accessed: November 2, 2010]. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (1990), United Nations Convention on the Rights. Available from:, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Web site: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm [Accessed: November 2, 2010]. Aleksi Knuutila (2010), Punishing costs: How locking up children is making Britain less safe. Available from:, The New Economics Foundation Web site: http://www.outoftrouble.org.uk/sites/default/files/nef_Punishing_Costs_0.pdf [Accessed: November 5, 2010] The Independent Commission On Youth Crime and Antisocial Behavior (2010), Time for a fresh start. Available from:, the Independent Commission on Youth Crime and Antisocial Behavior Web site: http://www.youthcrimecommission.org.uk/attachments/076_FreshStart.pdf [Accessed: November 5, 2010]. Inspectorate of Prisons (2010), Training planning for children and young people. Available from:, Youth Justice Board Web site: http://www.justice.gov.uk/inspectorates/hmi-prisons/docs/Training_Planning_Thematic_rps.pdf [Accessed: November 5, 2010].

Biological Activities of Betulin and Betulinic Acid

Biological Activities of Betulin and Betulinic Acid Betulin is the one of the premier pure, crystalline natural product obtained from plants through extraction and sublimation of birch bark (Lowitz 1788). Betulin and betulinic acid are closely related to each other, often found together in varying amount in different plant species when extracted by different solvents . Early anti septic property of betulin and its use become famous to be used in plaster for sterilization of cuts and wound .Studies indicated that betulin carry wound healing, cholesterol lowering activity, hepato-protecteive, anti-bacterial, anti-leishmenial, anti-viral, anti-cancer activities (Wheeler1899). Due to the high mutagenecity of HIV-1 and cancers cells in order to improve the biological activity of betulin and its derivatives various strategies were applied and still going on (Csuk, 2014), here we are presenting a coverage of the betulin, betulinic acid and its derivatives with their biological activity. Study carried on lung injury showed that betulinic acid protects sepsis induced lung injury against inflammation and indicated it as a potential regulator of the inflammation. In another study the positive effect on the acute lung injury cured by betulinic acid. The septic lung injury is generally characterized by the severe oxidative stress response, in addition to available treatment new methods are required to improve further clinical outcomes (Lingaraju et al., 2015). Lingaraju and coworkers found the effect of betulinic acid using cecal ligation and puncture model on oxidative lung injury. They treated two groups of mice with different concentration of betulinic acid, further their lung and plasma samples were collected for analysis by sacrificing the mice at 18hr. of surgery. They concluded increased antioxidants level in blood that lead to reduced lung injury in mice. The role of betulinic acid induces programmed death of human red blood cells (erythroptosis) was reported, whi ch is mediated through membrane permeabilization and calcium ion load (Gao et al.2014). Afzal and his group (Afzal et al. 2014) studied on the hypothyroidism in female albino rate for 2 months by giving them standard drug propyl thio uracil (PTU) for the induction of lower level of TSH for two months. Later on the mice were treated with standard thyroxin at a dose of 10ÃŽ ¼g/kg and the test drug betulinic acid at a dose of 20ÃŽ ¼g/kg of body weight. Finally after the two months study betulinic acid treated animals showed marked improvement in the follicle integrity that showed betulinic acid has protective activity against hypothyroidism. Two groups of semi synthetic derivatives of betulin (BT01 to BT09) and betulinic acid (AB10 to AB16) were synthesized respectively which has shown antileishmanial combined-therapy with miltefosine (Sousa et al.2014). Leishmaniasis was previously treated by miltefosine, amphotericin B, pentavalent antimony compounds, pentamidine etc. but due to thei r toxicity and biological resistance new therapeutics as betulin and betulinic acid derivatives are new avenues for its treatment. Accordingly, it is important to continue the search for new effective and less toxic treatments. Effects on the cell cycle, apoptosis / necrosis events, morphology and DNA integrity with isobologram method were used for a comparative study in between miltefosine with some of the derivative synthesized during the study. The AB13 (28-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)-3,28-dioxo-lup-1,20(29)-dien-2-yl-1H-imidazole-1-carboxylate) and BT06 (3ÃŽ ²-Hydroxy-(20R)-lupan-29-oxo-28-yl-1H-imidazole-1-carboxylate) derivatives were found to be the most active, with IC50 values of 25.8  µM, and 50.8  µM respectively. Synergistic interactions were observed between these two compounds and miltefosine. Significant morphological changes were observed using AB13, while both derivatives (AB13 and BT06) produced anti-proliferative activity through cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. Neither of these derivatives induced significant apoptosis /necrosis, as indicated by phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA fragmentation assays. Not only that, neither of the derivatives induced death in macrophage cell lines. Thus, they do not present any potential risk of toxicity for the host cells. This study identified the betulin derivative BT06 and the betulinic acid derivative AB13 as promising molecules in the development of new alternative therapies for leishmaniasis, including those involving combined-therapy with miltefosine. The solubility of betulin and its derivatives has been the most significant issue in drug development from these hydrophobic molecules . To overcome this problem nano-emulsion gels of betulinic acid were formulated(Bag and Dash 2011). They tried 20 organic solvents as well aqueous alcohol mixture to synthesize renewable nano-sized 6-6-6-6-5 pentacyclic triterpenic acid . They confirmed their results of increased hydro solubility as they found nano and micrometer length fibers using atomic force microscopy as well electron microscopy. Role of betulinic acid in manipulating the significant actions and role of xenobiotic and antioxidative enzymes in cancer initiation and proliferation were studied (Kaur and Arora 2013) . They studied on the interactio ns of betulinic acid on Sprague Dawley female rats with xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes including cytochrome b5, P420, P450, NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase, and NADH cytochrome b5 reductase (mixed function oxidases ), GST, DT-diaphorase, ÃŽ ³-glutamyl transpeptidase (phase II enzymes), alone as well as in the presence of 7,12 dimethylbenzanthracene(DMBA). The reduction in glutathione content and protein content was considered in the study to get the effect of betulinic acid. They observed the lower level of mixed function oxidases those are responsible for the conversion of carcinogen to electrophile and further increase in phase II enzymes which participated in the removal of electrophiles by sulfation or conjugation under betulinic acid treatment . Also reported that betulinic acid effectively removed or neutralized the reactive species by the action of phase II enzymes and such an effect was demonstrated from the specific activities of antioxidative enzymes which were found to b e lower as compared to positive control (DMBA-treated group) and in some cases even that of untreated control. They also found a pronounced effect of betulinic acid in protecting the animals from lipid peroxidation as evident from the reduced levels of TBARS, conjugated diene, and lipid hydroperoxide formation. Inhibition of SREBP1 activity through AMPK-mTOR-SREBP signaling pathway using betulinic acid was studied (Kim et al.2013) . Insulin-resistant HepG2 cells, primary rat hepatocytes and liver tissue from high-fat fed ICR mice were used to get insight of the mechanism responsible for anti fatty liver effect . Accumulations of triglyceride are the indication of fat deposition that was analyzed by â€Å"Oil Red O staining†, which suppression was reported by betulinic acid. Calcium-calmodulin dependent protein kinase kinase (CAMKK) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) both were activated by betulinic acid while on the other hand the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), pr otein levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), and S6 kinase (S6K) were all reduced when hepatocytes were treated with betulinic acid for up to 24 hours. Reduced lipogenesis leading to low lipid accumulation, nuclear translocation and repressed SREBP1 target gene expression in HepG2 cells and primary hepatocytes, suppression of SREBP1 mRNA expression and activation of AMPK via phosphorylation through betulinic acid were also highlighted in the study. Overall they suggested that betulinic acid could be promising molecule effectively ameliorating intracellular lipid accumulation in liver cells preventing fatty liver diseases. Reduction in skin hyper-pigmentation using betuinic acid from Vitis amurensis root and its anti-melanogenic effect and precise mechanism underlying the anti-melanogenic activity of betulinic acid in B16F10 cells were investigated (Jin et al. (2014). Betulinic acid significantly reduced 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX)-induced melanin synt hesis by inhibiting tyrosinase, tyrosinase related protein (TRP)-1, and TRP-2 expression through the modulation of their corresponding transcription factors in B16F10 cells. In addition, phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extra cellular regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) involved in the melanogenesis processes, were ameliorated by betulinic acid treatment. Specific inhibitors were used, PD98059 (for MEK/ERK) and LY294002 (for PI3K/Akt respectively) to confirm the role of MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in the melanogenesis. Consequently, betulinic acid inhibited melanin production by tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2 inhibition through the regulation of CREB and MITF, which was accompanied with MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt inactivation in IBMX-stimulated B16F10 cells. Finally these results expressed a novel molecular function of betulinic acid melanogenesis, which in turn enhances our understanding on the application of cosmetic therapy for reducing. Investigation were done on betulinic acid mediated fat mobilization by enhancing the level of lipolysis in adipose tissue that showed the antiobesity properties of betulinic acid with their possible mechanisms (Kim et al.2012). The lipolytic effects of betulinic acid were assayed in rat adipose tissues with inhibition of anti-lipase function and pancreatic lipase activity of betulinic acid in vitro which lead to prevent the elevation of plasma triacylglycerol levels, after oral administration of a lipid emulsion to rats where activity of cAMP-dependent phosphodiesterase was also measured. Betulinic acid inhibited pancreatic lipase activity in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations of 1.5-100à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ µM (ICà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â€š ¬ value of 21.10à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ µM) prevented the elevation of plasma triacylglycerol level after 2 hours of oral administration of the lipid emulsion at a dose of 100à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °mg/kg concluded the strong lipo lytic effect of betulinic acid which was mediated by cAMP-dependent phosphodiesterase inhibition. Betulinic acid exerted antiobesity effects by directly inhibiting pancreatic lipase, that can prevent the absorption of lipid from the small intestine. Recent studies on the chemical as well biological synthesis of the betulinic acid derivatives , they used fungi in combination with plant tissue culture of carrot and found that the most active derivative as , 3-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)hydrazono-lup-(20R)-29-oxolupan-28-oic acid, showed IC50values between 1.76 and 2.51ÃŽ ¼M against five human cancer cell lines (Baratto et al. 2013). The most selective, 3-hydroxy-20-(2, 4-dinitrophenyl) hydrazono-29-norlupan-28-oic acid, was five to seven times more selective for cancer cells when compared to fibroblasts. The cell cycle studies and apoptosis induction, with high cytotoxicity and selectivity on the tumour cell shown the efficacy of the transformed molecule. The design and synthesis of seco deri vtives from the alteration in the â€Å"A† ring of betulinic acid were carried (Hsin-Yi Hung 2014). A group of compounds were synthesized and their enhanced chemopreventive ability in vitro short term induced assays were done in Raji cells, C28 modified analogs shown significant activation. One of the modified derivative was found to shown 100% inhibition of EBV-EA at 1Ãâ€"103molratio/TPA ,73.4%, 35.9%, and 8.4% inhibition at 5Ãâ€"102, 1Ãâ€"102, and10molratio/TPA, respectively, comparable with curcumin at high concentration. In an investigation the role of betulinic acid co-regulation with vitamin D3,was reported that showed that betulinic acid improves insulin secretion with increasing glycogen content and glucose uptake in muscle tissue(Castro et al.2014). It was also reported that betulinic acid enhances the GLUT4 immunocontent and its translocation was supported by GLUT4 itself as well it does not cause hyper-calcemia that is very significant from the drug discovery pe rspective. In search of safe and natural treatment of obesity betulinic acid was tried as anti-obese drug on swiss albino male mice fed with high fat diet. Betulinic acid was extracted from ethanolic root extract of Clusia nemorosa (Rao et al. 2009).They treated mice at 50mg/kg body weight with control where they found significant control on the The therapeutic potential of betulinic acid on bone metastases and skeletal complications in breast cancer patients were investigated (Park et al.2014). They suggested the protective and therapeutic potential of betulinic acid on cancer-associated bone diseases. This is the first report indicating effect of betulinic acid on breast cancer cells, osteoblastic cells, and osteoclasts in the vicious cycle of osteolytic bone metastasis. Betulinic acid reduced cell viability and the production of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), a major osteolytic factor, in MDA-MB-231 human metastatic breast cancer cells stimulated with or without tumor growth factor-ÃŽ ². An increase in the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL) / osteoprotegerin ratio was blocked by betulinic acid through down regulating RANKL protein expression in PTHrP-treated human osteoblastic cells. Not only that the inhibition of RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in murine bone marrow macrophages an d decreased the production of resorbed area in plates with a bone biomimetic synthetic surface by suppressing the secretion of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, and cathepsin K in RANKL-induced osteoclasts was observed by betulinic acid. Furthermore, oral administration of betulinic acid inhibited bone loss in mice intra-tibially inoculated with breast cancer cells and in ovariectomized mice causing estrogen deprivation, as supported by the restored bone morphometric parameters and serum bone turnover markers. Taken together, these findings suggest that betulinic acid may have the potential to prevent bone loss in patients with bone metastases and cancer treatment-induced estrogen deficiency. A pioneer study on athymic nude mice, bearing MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma xenografts was taken as in vitro cytotoxic and in vivo anti-tumor model (Damle et al. 2013). The antitumour activity of betulinic acid was studied at 50 and100 mg/kg body weights, whereas cytotoxic activity of MCF- 7 cells with IC50 value of 13.5 µg/ml was studied by MTT assay. Betulinic acid treatment shown significant reduction in tumour size of 77 and 52% tumour size (100 and 50 mg/kg body weight respectively) in addition decreased angiogenesis, proliferation and invasion in betulinic acid treated mice were also highlighted through histopathological studies. Through topomer CoMFA , some 35 derivatives of betulinic acid were prepared and tested against HT29 human colon cancer cells (Ding et al.2013) . The contour maps showed that bulky and electron-donating groups would be favorable for activity at the C-28 position, and a moderately bulky and electron-withdrawing group near the C-3 position would improve this activity. Few of the betulin derivativeswere designed and synthesized as per the modeling result, while groups such as maleyl, phthalyl, and hexahydrophthalyl (bulky electronegative groups) were directly introduced at the C-28 position. They also found consistency with predicted and actual IC50 value of the given analogsagainst HT29 cells, proving that the present topomer CoMFA model is successful and that it could potentially forward the synthesis of newbetulinic acidderivativeswith high anti-cancer activity. Five tumour cell lines were tested against three newly synthesized derivatives where 28-O-hexahydrophthalyl betulin shown the greatest anti-cancer activities and its ICà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â€š ¬ values were lower than other tumour cell line except DU145.In an investigation Prunella vulgaris was used for betulinic acid and ursolic acid extraction those were responsible for the anti-estrogenic effects, suggested their potential application against estrogen-dependent tumors (Kim et al. 2014).In this study Prunella vulgaris constituents were isolated and tested their individual anti-estrogenic effects. Betulinic acids, ursolic acid, Rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, oleanolic acid, hyperoside, rutin, were isolated from the flower stalks of P. vulgaris var. lilacina Nakai (Labiatae) which showed anti-estrogenic effects as a decreased level in the mRNA of GREB1,revealed significant anti-estrogenic effects of betulinic acid and ursolic acid, on estrogen receptors .They also demonstrated the

Self-Validation and Social Acceptance Essay -- Culture Cultural Essays

People often need to have validation from themselves, in regard to both their sexuality and general self, before being able to be accepted others. Too often this important fact is disregarded by today's culture and societal norm. This appears to be a recurring theme throughout the many passages and articles we have read in class, as well as in various piece of fictional literature. I will be using the 1991 film "Paris Is Burning," a short work of fiction by Jane S. Fancher called "Moonlover and the Fountain of Blood," the lecture given by Carolyn Dinshaw on the twenty-third of September, and Cherrie Moraga's "The Breakdown of the Bicultural Mind" to support my thesis. Originally, I started thinking about this paper in a manner quite different from that which will be shown here. I thought I knew everything I had learned and that I could take a single idea and 'run with it,' as the saying goes. Then I began reviewing the articles and rereading my classmates' posts. I have always had an unusual interest in how 'outsiders' interact with a society that tends to be somewhat exclusive. Being on the receiving end to this sometimes painful exclusiveness, having had a disability from an early age, the ideas of censorship and prohibition toward people discovering themselves intrigued me. Due to illness, I watched "Paris Is Burning" after sending in my original plan for this paper. I was impressed by the complexity of the homosexual community in New York during the eighties. Despite the fact that all of these men were living outside of societal norms, they had a sense of belonging and home. They created Houses and families to replace what they had lost, but also to give them something they had not experienced in their previous liv... ...Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi, New York, Routeledge. 7. 234. Moraga, Cherrie (1996), "The Breakdown of the Bicultural Mind," in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi, New York, Routeledge. 8. 234. Moraga, Cherrie (1996), "The Breakdown of the Bicultural Mind," in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi, New York, Routeledge. 9. 238. Moraga, Cherrie (1996), "The Breakdown of the Bicultural Mind," in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi, New York, Routeledge. 10. Moraga, Cherrie (1996), "The Breakdown of the Bicultural Mind," in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi, New York, Routeledge,

The Rise of a Native American Balladry Essay -- Music Ballads Native A

The Rise of a Native American Balladry First, it will be necessary to review some important points. In the early days (1600-1770s), importation/adaptation was the dominant process. British songs and ballads were adapted to the frontier experience, Victorian morality and Puritan ethics. Songs which contained subject matter which was completely irrelevant to the frontier or unacceptable to moral and ethical standards were either discarded altogether, new lyrics were added to old melodies, or lyrical changes were made. (Remember, there were no copyright laws at that time). However, even from the beginning, original folk creations began to take their place alongside the traditional ballads. While some strong similarities to the traditional patterns my be observed, some important differences emerge. Compared with British ballads, American ballads placed more emphasis on vocal harmony and instrumentation (except in the mountain regions where women seldom played instruments). The American ballads were more journalistic (Wolfe, in Carr, 1979:4), that is, they paid much more attention to names (Tom Dula, Sally Goodin, Omie Wise, Floyd Collins), dates (of train wrecks, floods, wars, mining disasters) and place. They were certainly more moralistic - in keeping with the Puritan moral code. Art for art's sake was considered frivolous, e.g., "fiddling around." The idle mind is the devil's workshop, therefore frivolity is also probably sinful. These attitudes were very pervasive and were instilled in generations of American youth through McGuffey's Reader, Poor Richard's Almanac and popular literature such as Hawthorne's Scarlet... ...r is an instrument of Spanish origin and would likely have been transported to the new world by Spanish colonists. However, the guitar was in the American colonies during the colonial period. Malone is probably correct in his assertion that the guitar was rather late in coming into the southern musical tradition; however, once introduced it soon became the dominant instrument. Again, the Sears-Roebuck mail order catalog was one of the major sources for the guitar. Works Cited: Carr, Patrick (ed). The Illustrated History of Country Music. Garden City: Doubleday, 1979. Lomax, Alan. "Folk Song Style," The American Anthropologist 61:926-955. Malone, Bill C. Country Music USA: Fifty Year History. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985. Nettl, Bruno. An Introduction to Folk Music in the United States, l960).

Philosophy of Education Essay -- Philosophy on Teaching Educational Es

Philosophy of Education My philosophy of education would include a classroom that supports creativity and gives students an opportunity to explore the world in the confines of four walls. Knowledge results from countless experiences and interactions throughout an individual’s lifetime. I believe the purpose of education is to allow students to discover who they are through exploring who has come before them, and what is possible for them in the future. Formal education should provide students with more than a foundation in basic disciplines. It should develop skills that will facilitate living and working in an ever-changing world; one filled with diversity. As a teacher, I would hope to illustrate to my students how vital each and every one of them is to the world as a whole. My classroom would be bright and colorful. Examples of students’ work would be displayed. The environment will be student centered. The desks would be arranged in a circle for class discussions, and be moved into separate stations for cooperative work. Computers would be stationed around the classroom and used frequently. Discovery based learning would be a major factor considered in the design of my classroom. Students will have the choice of using various resources and materials to suit their preferred style of learning. Some of us are listeners, readers, or just may simply need to get our hands dirty. An effective classroom teacher would be able to cater to all of these academic...

Interdiscuplinary Study in Consumer Behaviour Essay

With the development of a consumer society, increasing consumer power in the market place, the growth in marketing, advertising, sophisticated consumers, ethical consumption etc, consumption is recognized as central to modern life. Thus it entails to go into a depth of the different approaches to consumer behaviour. Many human sciences give a variety of reasons to explain why a consumer behaves in a particular way in a given situation. Studies of consumption investigate how and why society and individuals consume goods and services, and how this affects society and human relationships. These are found in many social sciences such as economics, psychology, sociology, etc. The present study tries to investigate these theories based on consumption and consumer behaviour and how far these are interlinked as well as different from one another. It is also aimed at studying the relevance of these theories with the help of primary data and research. The purpose of this study is to find out whether there is some interlink between the various theories and approaches given by different economists, psychologists and sociologists. The hypothesis framed for the research is that Consumption is greatly influenced by the income factor. The data used in the study was mostly secondary in nature from the internet and reference to several books. The theories of consumption studied for this purpose are the demand theory, indifference curve analysis, revealed preference theory, Keynes’ consumption theory, permanent income hypothesis, relative income hypothesis, life-cycle hypothesis, Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, the sociological theories of consumption given by G. Katona, Ruby Turner Norris and the theory of Conspicuous consumption given by Veblen. An attempt has been made to study consumer behaviour with the help of primary data collected from a sample of 40 people from 4 categories namely, students, housewives, employees and businessmen. They were asked to rank the different factors that influence their buying behaviour. The influential factors given in the questionnaire were taken from the consumption theories given in economics, sociology as well as psychology as given above. From the analysis of both primary as well as secondary data, it was found that majority of people give importance to their income level. However, it is also found that, besides income factor, people also think about sociological and psychological factors while purchasing a commodity such as security, safety, fashion, advertising, comforts and prestige issues. As given in the Sociological theories of G. Katona and Norris, it was seen after the primary data analysis that the economic theory of consumption lacks such social structural variables. Thus it is concluded that in the construction of any consumption function or theory – for a particular product, for a particular class of products, or for consumption in general – not either economic or sociological or psychological variable is to be regarded as the key determinant. Different combinations of all these three enter into different statements of consumption functions at different situations and time periods according to the necessity or urgency of the wants.

Nursery school Essay

Identify setting which provide early years education and care: Settings which provide early years and care are: Statuaryservices: This is provided by government or state; they are set by laws and passed by parliaments and Refers to services provided by the local authority as a matter of course. ?EYFS. Children centre aim ton purpose to provide an accurate assessment of individual children at the end of EYFS year. ?Primary schools. Reception classes for children under 5 years old. ?Sure start. This is programme for children under five that can provide early learning and full day care for pre-school children. ?Maintained Nursery Schools. This is registered with Ofsted and inspected regularly maintained schools provide a free early education and offer young children to play in small group. ?Nursery schools. Provide pre-school education for children before they go to primary school. http://society. guardian. co. uk/glossary/page/0,,646470,00. html Privateservices:Consist of educational, medical, and health, business, recreational. ?Private primary schools. Non state school has the right to select their students and charge fees. ?Child minder. a qualified person works with children for more than 2  hours a day must comply with the requirement of EYFS. ? Nannies and Grandparents. Those can provide care for one child or more. ?Private nurseries. provide profession child care and pre-school nursery education. http://youth-partnership-eu. coe. int/youth-partnership/glossary. html Voluntary service: Voluntary service is understood as being part of voluntary activities and is characterised by the following additional aspects: fixed period (no matter if short or long-term), clear objectives, contents and tasks, structure and framework, appropriate support, legal and social . This is can be organised by charities,?Day school (running by parents)children are given an educational instructions on a particular topic during the day, ? Community nurseries. (sense, scoop)offering affordable quality child care and education. ?Play group and pre-school. Offer early childhood education to children between 3 – 5 years old. http://youth-partnership-eu. coe. int/youth-partnership/glossary. html Task 2 (1. 1): The letter: 23/09/2014 Whom it may concern, Dear Sir /Madam, I am writing to you regarding post Early Years Practitioner advertised last week, to tell you that, I am interesting in this job, because I believe that, I  have got all the skills and attributes makes me qualified to this job. I have previously attended Cook And Taste Programme which is related to care after children’s health, and I Work in private nurseries and primary schools for the last 2 years, this is give me good experiences, I have enjoyed developing my skills planning and implementing sporting craft activities and reading stories for the children. My sensitivity gives me ability to be aware of and responsive to the feelings and needs of another person. And my comfort means physically and emotionally it may provide in the  form of cuddle at a time of anxiety time or by providing a reassuring safe environment to a distressed child, touching, listening, and talking can all provide emotional comfort as well. As a practitioner I believe that should have an awareness of child’s personal rights, dignity, and privacy, and must show this at all times. Every child is unique and so my approach will need to be tailored to each individual’s needs. My knowledge is a secure of early childhood development and how that leads me to successful learning and development at schools essential, so I kno what am doing as a practitioner. I have got good skills of listening which is vital part of the caring relationship. Sometimes child’s real needs are communicated more by what is left unsaid than by what is actually said, facial, expressions, pasture and other forms of body language all give clues to a child’s feelings and as a practitioner for yearly years I be aware of these forms nonverbal communication. I have got high quality skills of coping with stress, means caring for other effectively in a full-time capacity requires energy, and it is important to be aware of the possibility of professional burnout in order to help others, as  a practitioner I suppose to develop outside skills to avoid suffer (burnout). I have empathy and the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. I am a patience individual which helps with my involvements with other people and to learn of other people’s methods of dealing with problems, even when I feel that my own way is better – it is required with children. I have sound knowledge of the principles and content of the Early Years Foundation Stage and know how to put it into practice. I am able to plan and prioritise in a flexible and informed way. I am responsive to change and ideas. I have an ability to plan and lead meetings with practitioners, parents and professionals for beyond the sitting. I am also able to establish and be part of a culture of collaborative and cooperative working between settings and colleagues. I have excellent written and verbal communication skills. Demonstrate an ability to write up reports, recording efficiently and effectively. I have an ability to contribute to ideas for the ongoing development and improvement of services. I have an understanding of the importance of attachment theory in a child’s development and acceptance and be able to work on own initiative. Committed to continuing professional development and be able to demonstrate a strong belief in the importance of early years. Happily, I am also to relate well to children and adults. Your faithfully Tagrid Elias Contact number; 02035814672-07950863260 E-mail address: tootaosman@hotmail. co. uk 1. 5 Reasons for adhering to the agreed scope of the job role: Some reasons why it is important to adhere to agreed scope of the job role is that when you appointed for the position, you have agreed with the job description as part of a contract with the employer. So, it is your legal responsibility to adhere in your defined role. It is your duty to understand the expectations of your job as well as understand professional boundaries. In order to be successful in your job, it is essential to be respectful and accountable. It isimportanttoadheretoagreedscopeofthejobroleisthat establish warm, respectful trusting supportive relationships with babies and children. Support parents/carers in their relationship with their children. Support and encourage Key Persons to have a solid knowledge and understanding of individual children’s needs their family backgrounds and cultures. This is because each job/position is a small part of a larger operation. Doing  something by â€Å"the agreed scope of the job† might not make sense at that level but it might help keep the larger operation running smoothly. The yearly years foundation stage (EYFS) sets the statutory standards that all early years providers must meet. This includes all maintained schools, non-maintained schools, independent schools and all providers on the Early Years Register. Rf. GOV. UK 1. 6 Every day routine is: ?Signing in and out. As a practitioner I encourage children to sign in an out for safety reasons, and telling them to hang up their coats, and ask them to wash their hands. ?Toilet break/ nappy changing. Encourage children to toilet to train them to go in right time, the age for toilet training is generally accepted as being around the 2-3 year old age range. ?Snack time. It is very important to give children a snack and it is a portion of food often smaller than a generally eaten between meals to provides the body with energy. ?Tidy up time. It can be a song about tiding up, or it can be any old song i like (something that is fun and will get some focused activity). Sing along with the song yourself, and just start picking things up and putting them away, saying â€Å"this is the tidy up song, this song always means it’s tidy up time. † over time the ritual and routine of this will sink in ?Playing. Suppose to encourage children to play all around us, play can occur alone or in groups, It can be spontaneous or as part of a planned activity it can be defined as a physical or mental activity, and It is not hard to recognize the benefits of play for children’s health. Task 3: 1. 3 Describe the relationship between legislation, policies and procedures: Policies and procedures are what differentiate each workplace. Every workplace should develop and implement policies and procedures which are relevant to the individual workplace incorporating the legislation from  the 2 statements. For example, a magazine shop would have a different set of polices than a care home because there are different takes being carried out by the staff. The Health & Safety at Work Act (1974) is the legislation (or law) which applies to every workplace, it can basically be boiled down to 2 statements: Employers Responsibility: To ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of all its employees. Employee’s Responsibility: To take reasonable care of themselves in the workplace and to be mindful of the effects of their acts and omissions. 1.4 describe the role of the early year’s practitioner in relation to current framework: Practitioners: have a crucial role to play in finding ways of engaging and collaborating with children in writing, of creating interesting and purposeful opportunities to write both indoors and outdoors, and planning higher levels of adult-child interaction that support children’s thinking In good environment for good health. Put the child safety first: ensuring the welfare and safety ?Upholding the child’s rights and dignity. ?Enabling the child to achieve their full learning potential. ?Showing compassion and sensitivity. ?Respecting the child as individual. Cache principle: ?Apply CACH’s equality of opportunity policy. ?Never use physical punishment. ?Honour the congeniality of information relating to the child and their family, unless it is discloser is required by law or in the best interest of the child. ?Respect the customs, values and spiritual beliefs of the children and their family. ?Respect the contribution and expertise of staff in child care and education led, and other professionals who may they involve. The framework for early year’s practitioner to do the following: ?Record their qualification. ?Reflect on their work. ?Formulate their self-development plan. ?Allow manager to understand staff experience and qualification and training needs to support the development of the sitting. ?Ensures children are kept healthy and safe. ?Ensures that children have the knowledge and skills they need to start school. ?Sets the standards that all early years providers must meet to ensure that children learn and develop well. ? 3. 1 Explain how a working relationship is different from a personal relationship: Thedifferencebetweenaworkingrelationshipandpersonalrelationship is that, because of boundaries, professional codes of conduct, employer policies and procedures. in your working relationship you would be friendly have a different approach treat with equality you would know your role and responsibility you would not share personal information as you would with friends. Also a working relationship as no emotional attachment and is primary based around your job, where as personal relationship as an emotional attachment due having family and personal friends and is not work related. 3. 2 Identify different working relationships in early years setting: Colleagues: Which we support each other and cover to each other if one of us unwell, and give right information to help us process the work ,so is very important that working together as team work. Manager: Provide right information about every single child clearly in good report to help the manager catch up correct information for easy and smooth work. GP (the doctor): Take all the health information from children’s GP that will help us to avoid put children in risk, and inform their doctors about any change we me recognise it. Social worker: Work with social worker keeps children safe if their parents abuse them or relative emotionally or sexually Parents: Work with parent Is more important things, this will allow  parents and staff share information about the children. Children: We have to give every single child chance to tell about themselves and give them opportunity to get their right, listening to them, give them time to explain themselves, and develop their skills. Suppose to work in respect and trust environment to run the work in smooth and easy way to share information between them. 3. 3 Explain reasons for working in partnership with other: Partnership involves responsibility on both sides. Working in partnership with others is very important because everyone involved can share  information and concerns to create a holistic view about children and young people. For example in a nursery working with the parents/cares is part of safeguarding policy, this will help children feel safe and secure. Partnership involves parent, families and practitioners working together to benefit the children. Each person recognizes respects and value what others does and says (opinions). Part Communication will be easy and clear. Good partnership working should be based on effective and accessible peer support. Open and honest communication essential to encourage trust . Choice, fairness, openness, trust and empathy; and  Respect for the experience and knowledge of the person (and, where appropriate, their carers) about their condition, circumstances and preferences for care. In order to achieve a good partnership partners need to communicate, co-ordinate, co- operate. There are two types of partnership working: multi agency working and integrated working. Multi agency working brings together practitioners from different sectors to provide an integrated way of working to support children, young people and families and ensure that children who need additional support get the right professionals they need to support them. Multi agency working may include people form professional backgrounds such as social workers, health, education, early years, youth work, and police and youth justice. Children, young people and family’s needs can be very different, the composition of a multi-agency team will differ from case to case. It is important each practitioner brings with them their own specialist skills, so that the child, young person and family gets the best support possible. An integrated working are service hubs for the community bringing together a range of services, usually under one roof, whose practitioners then work in a  multi-agency way to deliver integrated support to children, young people and their families, for example extended services of Sure Start center. It includes people such as nurse, teacher, youth worker, sports coach, social worker, or any other member of the children’s workforce. It is important to work in partnership with others because: all the agencies can share information and concerns and create a holistic view about children in a care setting when any need arises, to help to keep the children safe from harm and promote their welfare, to diagnose a special need quickly inchildren and get the help that is needed to the child/family†¦ Ref : Study Mode 3. 4 Identify skills and approaches needed for resolving conflict: We should try to handle conflict situations by remaining calm, ending the conflict before it escalates and remaining respectful of others. However, there are times when this may seem impossible and the following skills are required: Openly discuss, knowledge the feeling and emotions from both side, demonstrate active listening skills for both side and Give both opportunity to be heard without, Invite them to come with their own solutions to the problem. Partnership involves parents, families and practitioners working together to benefit the children. Each person recognizes, respect and value what others does and says opinions. Good partnership working should be based on: effective and accessible peer support Open a honest communication and give choice, fairness, openness, trust and empathy. Finally respect for the experience and knowledge of the person( and where appropriate their carers) about their condition, circumstances and preference for care. Task 4 4. 1 Explain why continuing professional development is integral to the role of the early year’s practitioner: Continuing professional development is important because it ensures me continues to be competent in your profession and it is an on-going process and continues throughout a professional’s. Continuing professional development is integral to the role of the early years practitioner. Working with children is a highly responsible profession; it requires to show great sensitivity to the children and their parents. In order to be successful in the role practitioners have to be honest with themselves, recognize where are the areas of weaknesses and strengths. An introduction to the role of the early year’s practitioner Unit 2. 1 Tagrid elias.

Issue of Problem Facing the Welfare

Perhaps no other child-serving systems encounter a higher percentage of children with a trauma history than the child welfare system. Almost by definition, children served by child welfare have experienced at least one major traumatic event, and many have long and complex trauma histories. Children in the child welfare system, especially those in foster care, have a higher prevalence of mental health problems than the general population. Abuse and neglect often occur with concurrent exposure to domestic violence, substance abuse, and community violence.These children also often face the additional stressors of removal from the home, multiple placements in out-of-home care (foster homes, shelters, group homes, residential treatment facilities, kinship placements), and different schools and peer groups. Research shows that exposure to trauma can increase the risk of experiencing multiple types of trauma, known as polyvictimization or complex trauma, with increased likelihood of adverse traumatic symptoms. CWLA is committed to ensuring that children and their families are provided with effective trauma-informed services that lead to their optimal well-being.In the winter of 2012, CWLA will devote a special issue of its journal, Child Welfare, to addressing the effect of child traumatic stress on children, families, operations, and staff within child welfare. Of particular interest are articles that address the following: Trauma-informed, evidence-based innovative practice and policy across the spectrum of child welfare services including prevention of child abuse and neglect, family preservation and support, child and family protection, placement, and permanency services Trauma-informed, evidenced-based mental health practice within the child welfare system (e. g. screening, assessment, and treatment) Trauma and evidence-informed strategies and practices that improve the social and emotional well-being for children involved or at risk of involvement with child wel fare who experience trauma and/or exhibit trauma symptoms Culturally responsive models for youth, family, and community engagement in developing trauma-informed child welfare practice, policy, and systemic improvement Prevalence and impact of secondary traumatic stress on child welfare staff and evidence-based interventions indicated for secondary traumatic stress Role of cultural issues and cultural competency on developing trauma-informed child welfare ractice, policy, and systemic improvement Data collection, empirical investigation, and evaluation of the effects of identification, referral, and treatment on the safety, permanency, and well-being outcomes of children exposed to traumatic stress involved with the child welfare system Effective cross-system collaborations between child welfare, education, mental health, and juvenile justice systems in identifying and addressing the impact of trauma on children and families served by multiple systems While there are many promising p ractices emerging regarding the response of child welfare to address child traumatic stress, there is a need to document and share knowledge and experiences more broadly. CWLA is soliciting manuscripts that document and build on these experiences. Research-based articles and conceptual works referencing studies are welcome. Articles that document innovative and promising practices where knowledge is being built are also encouraged

Pozzo & Lucky’s Relationship

During the two character’s appearance in act 1 we learn a lot about both characters through the relationship they have with each other. While Lucky’s lack of speech under Pozzo’s domain makes it difficult to identify his personality, we can still infer a lot about him. ‘Pig’, ‘hog’ and ‘swine’. All abusive vocatives thrown at Lucky by Pozzo. An instant indication that the relationship between these two characters is far from friendly, and makes the relationship between Vladimir and Estragon seem certainly pleasant. It is clear that Lucky acts as a type of servant to Pozzo and this is clarified when he attempts to describe their relationship in the quote â€Å"He wants to mollify me, so that I'll give up the idea of parting with him†. It is instantly clear that Pozzo’s character is extremely arrogant. He lords over the others, and he is decisive, powerful, and confident. When his character is introduced he refers to the other two as human, but as inferior beings; then he condescendingly acknowledges that there is a human likeness, even though the â€Å"likeness is an imperfect one.† This image reinforces his authoritarian god-like stance. Pozzo's superiority is also seen in the manner in which he eats the chicken, and then casts the bones to Lucky with an air of complete omnipotence. Yet there are several quotes after he becomes acquainted with Vladamir and Estragon for example â€Å"I'd very much like to sit down† and referring to them as ‘gentlemen’ which suggest that, due to his long and lonely journey, he seeks the approval of them both and to be, as he quotes ‘old friends’. This provides the audience with a hint that despite has vast knowledge he is lacking somet hing which he cannot gain from Lucky which is a companion. Together the two characters represent the antithesis of each other. From one man who seems to be incapable of not contributing his input to someone who barely speaks a word. An inexhaustible amount of polarities can be applied to their relationship. However, Beckett has left a lot of information unsaid; Pozzo tells us that his profound knowledge was taught to him through none other than Lucky himself, whether this is simply a metaphorical term is undetermined however this does hint to the audience that perhaps the two characters were once not so dissimilar. Further enigma is created through pozzo exclamation that Lucky has become insufferable: â€Å"I can't bear it . . . any longer . . . the way he goes on . . . you've no idea†. This leaves the audience alienated in terms of context, we are unaware of Lucky even speaking let alone driving someone to such an extent. This could also be seen as a malicious side to Pozzo’s character as he could potentially be lying as he sees Estragon and Vladimir warming to Lucky and is envious of that. Read also Intro to Public Relations Notes Similarities can be seen between Pozzo ; Lucky’s relationship in comparison to Vladimir ; Estragon’s, in a sense that, the two relationships have an element of irascibility. Vladimir and Estragon fail to agree on things and often find themselves in disputes, yet they are still bound by each other and depend on one another. This is, in many ways mirrored in Pozzo and Lucky’s relationship, although there is a much bigger gap in terms of authority. Despite this, the two still depend on each other and are even bound by a rope which could be representative of an umbilical cord which brings about references to religion, life and other common themes within the play. To conclude, the relationship that Pozzo and Lucky have is very significant in the play and when the tables are turned in act 2 with Pozzo losing his sight we learn a lot more about the two characters than in their introduction in act 1. The master and the servant have little in common but are bound to each other much like our main characters Vladimir and Estragon.

Effects on economic efficiency of government price controls and taxes Term Paper

Effects on economic efficiency of government price controls and taxes - Term Paper Example The marginal gain is the extra benefit to a consumer from the usage of one extra unit of the service and good. The overall quantity a consumer surplus in any market is equivalent to the region beneath the demand curve and over the market price. This region shows the gain to consumers in surplus of the price they exchanged for a commodity. In the diagram below consumer surplus is represented by region A where it is above market price of ? 5 and the units sold which amount 5,000. Source: (Sexton, 2010) Producer Surplus Producer surplus refers to the distinction amid the least price a company would have been eager to allow and the price the company actually obtains. The overall quantity of the producer surplus in a market is equivalent to the region above the market surplus curve and beneath the price in the market. The supply curve illustrates the eagerness of companies to supply a commodity at various prices. Firms will be willing to supply an extra unit of a commodity only where they obtain a price equivalent to the extra price of production of that unit. Marginal cost is the extra cost to a company of making one extra unit of a product or service. Normally, the marginal cost of making a product rises as additional products are made in a given time period. The diagram below shows the relationship between the consumer surplus and the producer surplus. The producer surplus on a demand curve is found below the consumer surplus and above the supply curve. Source: (Sexton, 2010) A competitive market is one which has numerous buyers and sellers. One of the advantages of a market system is that it leads into effectual results. In a competitive equilibrium the marginal benefit is equivalent to the marginal cost where equilibrium leads to an economical effectual level of outcome in a competitive market. On the other hand, deadweight loss refers to a situation where the cost of a product is above the average or equilibrium price, economic surplus is below what it could b e at the equilibrium price. The decrease in the economic surplus emanating from the market which is not in a competitive equilibrium is what is known as the deadweight loss. The diagram below shows the deadweight loss on a demand and supply curve. Source: (Sexton, 2010) Economic Surplus and Economic Efficiency As mentioned earlier consumer surplus gives the dimension of the benefits to customers from purchasing a specific type of good while the producer surplus provides the dimension of the benefits to firms from merchandising a specific commodity. Thus economic surplus is now the total of the benefits to the company plus the benefits to individual consumers. This is normally the most efficient measure of the advantage to the community from the manufacture of a product or service. Equilibrium in the aggressive market leads into the highest quantity of economic surplus or the entire gain to the community from the manufacture of product or service. In the diagram below the blue and th e brown region represents the economic surplus. Source: (Sexton, 2010) Economic efficiency on the other hand refers to the market results where the marginal gain to consumers of the final produced unit is equivalent to its marginal production cost and where the total of consumer surplus and that of producer surplus is at its highest best (Sexton, 2010). It must be noted that not every person is better off in case a market is

Discuss the influence of the Mongol Rule on Russia in the 13-15th Essay

Discuss the influence of the Mongol Rule on Russia in the 13-15th centuries - Essay Example Russia before the Mongol invasion The 12th century became known as the peak of a period of feudal disunity in Russian and Soviet historiography. While there existed 15 quasi-independent principalities in the Russian lands of the mid-12th century, their numbers swelled to more than 50 on the eve of Mongol invasion (Vernadsky, 1973). The largest of these principalities included the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal that dominated the North-East Rus, the mercantile Republic of Novgorod that was practically independent from the Riurikid dynasty due to its custom of electing its princes, and the Principality of Halych in the South-West that became a basis for Dual Principality of Halych-Volyn’ after the unification of Halych and Volyn’ under Volynian prince Roman Rostislavich (ruled 1189-1205) in 1199 (Martin, 2003, pp.97). The other principalities, including Ryazan, Smolensk, Chernigov and Polotsk, were generally weak and dependent on their larger neighbors. The political fra gmentation of Kievan Rus was accompanied by bitter infighting between various principal cliques for the domination over Kiev, which, while having lost its previous political and economic importance, still remained a lucrative prize for an ambitious prince. The most important feudal wars in the 12th to 13th century included the warfare between princely clans of Monomashichi and Ol’govichi in 1146-1154, the raid of north-eastern princes led by Andrey Bogolubsky against Kiev in 1169, and the war between Roman of Volyn’ and Suzdalian Grand Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest (ruled in 1154-1212) in 1202-1203 (Martin 2003; Vernadsky 1973). While the separation of Rus’ lands into distinct polities allowed rapid economic development at the local level and facilitated the formation of cultural centers independent from Kiev, it undermined the potential for joint struggle of different principalities against the Great Steppe nomads. The failure of the raid of Igor Prince of Novgo rod-Siversky against the Polovtsy (Cumans) in 1185 (Martin, 2003, p.146) and especially the first disastrous encounter between the united hosts of the Rus’ princes and the vanguard Mongol troops in the Battle of Kalka River in 1223 (Fennell, 1983, pp.66-68) showed that Kievan Rus’ was unprepared for the Mongol onslaught. Positive and negative influences on the development of Russia under Mongol rule After the subjugation of Volga Bulgarians in 1236, the Mongol armies led by Batu Khan and Subutai attacked the territories of Grand Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal in November 1237. The fall of Ryazan and Vladimir signified the end of organized resistance by north-eastern princes, while the death of grand prince Yuri Vsevolodovich in the Battle of the Sit River in March 1238 (Fennell, 1983, p.81) left the Rus’ princes without their formal sovereign, making any coordinated counterattack unlikely. The only territories of the North left independent were Novgorod and its vassal principality of Pskov. In 1239-1240 Batu Khan attacked the South-Western Rus, destroying Chernigov and taking Kiev in December 1240 (Fennell,1983, p.83). Finally, in 1241 the Mongols managed to capture and ransack Halych and Vladimir-in-Volyn’, the capital of Volynian lands. From that time on, the majority of Rus’ principalities was unable to resist the Mongols and